Now that we’ve seen how types are implicitly converted in C++, we can see how they’re explicitly converted by casting. C++ offers a lot more kinds of casts than C# to control the conversion process. One of them—dynamic_cast—introduces the concept of Run-Time Type Information or RTTI, so we’ll go into that today as well.

Table of Contents

const_cast

C# has only one kind of cast: (DestinationType)sourceType. Since it’s the only option, it must be capable of handling every possible reason for casting. C++ takes a different tack. It provides a suite of casts from which we may choose to suit the intention of particular casting operations.

The first cast in this suite is one of the simplest: const_cast. We use this when we simply want to treat a const pointer or references as non-const:

// Remove const from a pointer
int x = 123;
int const * constPtr = &x;
int* nonConstPtr = const_cast<int*>(constPtr);
*nonConstPtr = 456;
DebugLog(x); // 456
 
// Remove const from a reference
int const & constRef = x;
int& nonConstRef = const_cast<int&>(constRef);
nonConstRef = 789;
DebugLog(x); // 789
 
// It's OK to cast null
constPtr = nullptr;
int* nullPtr = const_cast<int*>(constPtr);
DebugLog(nullPtr); // null

Note that function pointers and member function pointers can’t be const_cast.

In the first two examples, we used const_cast to get a non-const pointer and reference and then modified the value they referred to: x. That’s perfectly OK because x wasn’t actually const. However, it’s undefined behavior if we modify a variable that’s actually const:

int const x = 123;
int const & constRef = x;
int& nonConstRef = const_cast<int&>(constRef);
nonConstRef = 789; // Undefined behavior: modifying const variable x
DebugLog(x); // Could be anything!

So what does const_cast actually do? It’s really just a compile-time operation to reclassify an expression as non-const. No CPU instructions are generated because the CPU has no concept of const. In this sense, const_cast is “free” from a performance perspective.

reinterpret_cast

The next kind of cast is reinterpret_cast. This is another “free” cast that generates no CPU instructions. Instead, it just tells the compiler to “reinterpret” the type of one expression as another type.

We can only use this in particular situations. First, a pointer can be converted to and from an integer as long as that integer is large enough to hold all possible pointer values:

// Pointer -> Integer
int x = 123;
int* p = &x;
uint64_t i = reinterpret_cast<uint64_t>(p);
DebugLog(i); // memory address of x
 
// Integer -> Pointer
int* p2 = reinterpret_cast<int*>(i);
*p2 = 456;
DebugLog(x); // 456

We can also reinterpret nullptr as the integer 0:

uint64_t i = reinterpret_cast<uint64_t>(nullptr);
DebugLog(i); // 0

More commonly, we can reinterpret one kind of pointer as another kind of pointer:

struct Vector2
{
    float X;
    float Y;
};
 
struct Point2
{
    float X;
    float Y;
};
 
Point2 point{2, 4};
Point2* pPoint = &point;
Vector2* pVector = reinterpret_cast<Vector2*>(pPoint);
DebugLog(pVector->X, pVector->Y); // 2, 4

We have to take some precautions in order to use the resulting pointer safely. First, CPUs have alignment requirements on various data types such as float. The destination type’s alignment requirements can’t be stricter than the source type’s alignment requirements. It’s up to us as programmers to know the alignment requirements for our target CPU architectures and ensure that we’re using reinterpret_cast responsibly.

The C++ Standard says using the result of a reinterpret_cast is undefined behavior except in certain particular cases. The first is if they’re “similar.” That’s defined as being the same type, pointers to the same type, pointers to members of the same class and those members are similar, or arrays of the same size (or one has unknown size) with similar elements. Here are some examples:

// Similar: pointer to same type
int x = 123;
int* p = reinterpret_cast<int*>(&x); // int* -> int*
DebugLog(*p); // 123
 
// Similar: array with same dimensions and same type of elements
int a1[3]{1, 2, 3};
int (&a)[3] = reinterpret_cast<int(&)[3]>(a1);
DebugLog(a[0], a[1], a[2]); // 1, 2, 3
 
// Not similar: different types of pointers
float* pFloat = reinterpret_cast<float*>(p);
DebugLog(*pFloat); // Undefined behavior

Because undefined behavior may be implemented by a compiler however it chooses, many compilers are less strict than the C++ Standard requires. The last example of an int* to float* conversion in particular is commonly allowed by compilers as a kind of “type punning” similar to what we saw with unions.

If the types aren’t “similar” then we have two more chances to avoid undefined behavior. First, if one type is the signed or unsigned version of the same type:

// int* -> unsigned int*
int x = 123;
unsigned int* p = reinterpret_cast<unsigned int*>(&x);
DebugLog(*p); // 123

And second, if we’re reinterpreting as a char, unsigned char or, in C++17 and later, std::byte. These are specifically allowed so we can look at the byte representation of objects, such as for serialization to disk or a network:

// Print the bytes of a Vector2
Vector2 vec{2, 4};
char* p = reinterpret_cast<char*>(&vec);
DebugLog(p[0], p[1], p[2], p[3], p[4], p[5], p[6], p[7]);
static_cast

Next up we have our first cast that can generate CPU instructions: static_cast. The compiler checks a series of conditions to decide what a static_cast should do. The first check is to see if there’s an implicit conversion sequence from the source type to the destination type or if the destination type can be direct-initialized from the source type. If either is the case, the static_cast behaves like we wrote DestType tempVariable(sourceType):

struct File
{
    FILE* handle;
 
    File(const char* path, const char* mode)
    {
        handle = fopen(path, mode);
    }
 
    ~File()
    {
        fclose(handle);
    }
 
    operator FILE*()
    {
        return handle;
    }
};
 
File reader{"/path/to/file", "r"};
FILE* handle = static_cast<FILE*>(reader); // Implicit conversion

Next, it checks if we’re downcasting from a pointer or reference to a base class to a pointer or reference to a (non-virtually) derived class:

struct Vector2
{
    float X;
    float Y;
};
 
struct Vector3 : Vector2
{
    float Z;
};
 
Vector3 vec;
vec.X = 2;
vec.Y = 4;
vec.Z = 6;
Vector2& refVec2 = vec; // Implicit conversion from Vector3& to Vector2&
Vector3& refVec3 = static_cast<Vector3&>(refVec2); // Downcast
DebugLog(refVec3.X, refVec3.Y, refVec3.Z); // 2, 4, 6

We can also static_cast to void to explicitly discard a value. This is sometimes used to silence an “unused variable” compiler warning:

Vector2 vec{2, 4};
static_cast<void>(vec); // Discard the result of the cast

If there’s a standard conversion from the destination type to the source type, static_cast will reverse it. It won’t reverse any lvalue-to-rvalue conversions, array-to-pointer decay, function-to-pointer conversions, function pointer conversions, or bool conversions though.

int i = 123;
float f = static_cast<int>(i); // Undo standard conversion: int -> float
DebugLog(f); // 123

We can also explicitly perform some implicit conversions with static_cast: lvalue-to-rvalue, array-to-pointer decay, and function-to-pointer:

void SayHello()
{
    DebugLog("hello");
}
 
// lvalue to rvalue conversion
int i = 123;
int i2 = static_cast<int&&>(i);
DebugLog(i2); // 123
 
// Array to pointer decay
int a[3]{1, 2, 3};
int* p = static_cast<int*>(a);
DebugLog(p[0], p[1], p[2]); // 1, 2, 3
 
// Function to pointer conversion
void (*pFunc)() = static_cast<void(*)()>(SayHello);
pFunc(); // hello

Scoped enumerations can be converted to integer or floating point types using static_cast. Since C++20, this works like an implicit conversion from the enum’s underlying type to the destination type. Before that, casting to bool was treated differently since only 0 would become false and everything else would become true.

enum class Color
{
    Red,
    Green,
    Blue
};
 
Color green{Color::Green};
 
// Scoped enum -> int
int i = static_cast<int>(green);
DebugLog(i); // 1
 
// Scoped enum -> float
float f = static_cast<float>(green);
DebugLog(f); // 1

We can go the other way, too: integers and floating point types can be static_cast to scoped or unscoped enumerations. We can also cast between enumeration types:

// Integer -> enum
int i = 1;
FgColor g1 = static_cast<FgColor>(i);
DebugLog(g1); // Green
 
// Floating point -> enum
float f = 1;
FgColor g2 = static_cast<FgColor>(f);
DebugLog(g2); // Green
 
// Cast between enum types
FgColor g3{FgColor::Green};
BgColor g4 = static_cast<BgColor>(g3);
DebugLog(g4); // Green

It’s undefined behavior if the underlying type of the enum isn’t fixed and the value being cast to the enum is out of its range. If it is fixed, the result is just like converting to the underlying type. Floating point values are first converted to the underlying type.

We can also use static_cast to upcast from a pointer to a member in a derived class to a pointer to a member in the base class:

float Vector3::* p1 = &Vector3::X;
float Vector2::* p2 = static_cast<float Vector2::*>(p1);
Vector3 vec;
vec.X = 2;
vec.Y = 4;
vec.Z = 6;
DebugLog(vec.*p1, vec.*p2); // 2, 2

And finally, static_cast can be used like reinterpret_cast to convert a void* to any other pointer type. The same caveats about alignment and type similarity apply.

int i = 123;
void* pv = &i;
int* pi = static_cast<int*>(pv);
DebugLog(*pi); // 123
C-Style Cast and Function-Style Cast

A “C-style” cast looks like a cast in C as well as C#: (DestinationType)sourceType. It behaves quite differently in C++ compared to C#. In C++, it’s mostly a shorthand for the first “named” cast whose prerequisites are met in this order:

  1. const_cast<DestinationType>(sourceType)
  2. static_cast<DestinationType>(sourceType) with more leniency: pointers and references to or from derived classes or members of derived classes can be cast to pointers or references to base classes or members of base classes
  3. static_cast (with more leniency) then const_cast
  4. reinterpret_cast<DestinationType>(sourceType)
  5. reinterpret_cast then const_cast
// Uses const_cast (#1)
int const i1 = 123;
int i2 = (int)i1;
DebugLog(i2); // 123
 
// Uses static_cast (#2)
Vector2 vec{2, 4};
Vector3* pVec = (Vector3*)&vec;
DebugLog(pVec->X, pVec->Y); // 2, 4 (undefined behavior to use Z!)
 
// Uses static_cast the const_cast (#3)
Vector2 const * pConstVec = &vec;
Vector3* pVec3 = (Vector3*)pConstVec;
DebugLog(pVec3->X, pVec3->Y); // 2, 4 (undefined behavior to use Z!)
 
// Uses reinterpret_cast (#4)
float* f1 = (float*)&i2;
DebugLog(*f1); // 1.7236e-43
 
// Uses reinterpret_cast then const_cast (#5)
float* f2 = (float*)&i1;
DebugLog(*f2); // 1.7236e-43

A “function-style” cast works just like a C-style cast. It looks like a function call and even requires the type to have only one word: int not unsigned int. Be careful not to mistake it for a function call or class initialization.

int i = 123;
float f = float(i);
DebugLog(f); // 123
dynamic_cast

All of the casts we’ve seen so far are “static.” That means the way they operate is determined at compile time and don’t depend on the run-time value of the expression being cast. For example, consider this downcast:

void PrintZ(Vector2& vec)
{
    // Downcast
    Vector3& refVec3 = reinterpret_cast<Vector3&>(vec);
 
    // Undefined behavior if vec isn't really a Vector3
    DebugLog(refVec3.X, refVec3.Y, refVec3.Z);
}

Remember that reinterpret_cast generates no CPU instructions. This means the compiler isn’t generating any CPU instructions that would check if vec is really a Vector3. If it is, this code works just fine. If it’s not, reading Z will read the four bytes that come after wherever the Vector2 is in memory. That’s almost certainly not a valid Z value and will cause severe errors in our program logic when we try to use it that way. It’s also undefined behavior, so the compiler might generate surprising CPU instructions such as just skipping reading and printing Z altogether.

To address this issue, C++ has a “safe” cast called dynamic_cast. It works very similarly to C#’s only cast.

Like static_cast, a sequence of checks is performed to decide what the CPU should do. First, we can cast to the same type or to add const:

// Cast to same type
Vector2 v{2, 4};
Vector2& r1 = v;
Vector2& r2 = dynamic_cast<Vector2&>(r1);
DebugLog(r2.X, r2.Y); // 2, 4
 
// Cast to add const
Vector2 const & r3 = dynamic_cast<Vector2 const &>(r1);
DebugLog(r3.X, r3.Y); // 2, 4

Second, if the value is null then the result is null:

Vector2* p1 = nullptr;
Vector2* p2 = dynamic_cast<Vector2*>(p1);
DebugLog(p2); // 0

Third, we can upcast from a pointer or reference to a derived class to a pointer or reference to a base class:

Vector3 vec;
vec.X = 2;
vec.Y = 4;
vec.Z = 6;
Vector3& r3 = vec;
Vector2& r2 = dynamic_cast<Vector2&>(r3);
DebugLog(r2.X, r2.Y); // 2, 4

Fourth, we can cast pointers to classes that have at least one virtual function to void* and we’ll get a pointer to the most-derived object that pointer points to:

struct Combatant
{
    virtual ~Combatant()
    {
    }
};
 
struct Player : Combatant
{
    int32_t Id;
};
 
Player player;
player.Id = 123;
Combatant* p = &player;
void* pv = dynamic_cast<void*>(p); // Downcast to most-derived class: Player*
Player* p2 = reinterpret_cast<Player*>(pv);
DebugLog(p2->Id); // 123

Finally, we have the primary use case of dynamic_cast: a downcast from a pointer or reference to a base class to a pointer or reference to a derived class. This generates CPU instructions that examine the object being pointed to or referenced by the expression to cast. If that object is really a base class of the destination type and that destination type has only one sub-object of the base class, which may not be the case with non-virtual inheritance, then the cast succeeds with a pointer or reference to the derived class:

Player player;
player.Id = 123;
Combatant* p = &player;
Player* p2 = dynamic_cast<Player*>(p); // Downcast
DebugLog(p2->Id); // 123

This can also be used to perform a “sidecast” from one base class to another base class:

struct RangedWeapon
{
    float Range;
 
    virtual ~RangedWeapon()
    {
    }
};
 
struct MagicWeapon
{
    enum { FireType, WaterType, ArcaneType } Type;
};
 
struct Staff : RangedWeapon, MagicWeapon
{
    const char* Name;
};
 
Staff staff;
staff.Name = "Staff of Freezing";
staff.Range = 10.0f;
staff.Type = MagicWeapon::WaterType;
 
Staff& staffRef = staff;
RangedWeapon& rangedRef = staffRef; // Implicit conversion upcasts
MagicWeapon& magicRef = dynamic_cast<MagicWeapon&>(rangedRef); // Sidecast
DebugLog(magicRef.Type); // 1

If neither the downcast nor the sidecast succeed, the cast fails. When pointers are being cast, the cast evaluates to a null pointer of the destination type. If references are being cast, a std::bad_cast exception is thrown:

struct Combatant
{
    virtual ~Combatant()
    {
    }
};
 
struct Player : Combatant
{
    int32_t Id;
};
 
struct Enemy : Combatant
{
    int32_t Id;
};
 
// Make a Combatant: the base class
Combatant combatant;
Combatant* pc = &combatant;
Combatant& rc = combatant;
 
// Cast fails. Combatant object isn't a Player. Null returned.
Player* pp = dynamic_cast<Player*>(pc);
DebugLog(pp); // 0
 
try
{
    // Cast fails. Combatant object isn't a Player. std::bad_cast thrown.
    Player& rp = dynamic_cast<Player&>(rc);
    DebugLog(rp.Id); // Never called
}
catch (std::bad_cast const &)
{
    DebugLog("cast failed"); // Gets printed
}

Note that using dynamic_cast on this during a constructor is undefined behavior unless the destination type is the same class type or a base class type. We’ll see why in the next section.

Run-Time Type Information

In order to implement dynamic_cast, the compiler must generate what’s known as Run-Time Type Information or RTTI. The exact format of this information is compiler-specific, but the compiler will generate data to be used at runtime by dynamic_cast in order to determine the type of a particular object.

Since dynamic_cast only works on types with at least one virtual function, it can take advantage of the object’s virtual function table or “vtable.” This is a compiler-generated array of function pointers for all the virtual functions of a class. One table will be generated for each class in the inheritance hierarchy. A pointer to the table, known as a “virtual table pointer” or “vpointer,” will be added as a data member of all classes in the hierarchy and initialized during construction.

This virtual table pointer can therefore also be used to identify the class of an object since there is one virtual function table per class. The inheritance hierarchy is then conceptually expressed as a tree of virtual table pointers with implementation details varying by compiler.

Because all this RTTI data adds to the executable size, many compilers allow it to be disabled. That also disables dynamic_cast as it depends on RTTI.

typeid

There is one other use of RTTI: the typeid operator. It’s used to get information about a type, similar to typeof or GetType in C#. The operand can be either be named statically like typeof in C# or dynamically like GetType in C# to look up the type based on an object’s value. The C++ Standard Library’s <typeinfo> header is required to use this.

// Static usage based on type
std::type_info const & ti1{typeid(Combatant)};
 
// Dynamic usage based on variable with a virtual function
Enemy enemy;
std::type_info const & ti2{typeid(enemy)};
 
// Dynamic usage based on variable with no virtual function
// Equivalent to static usage: typeid(int)
int i = 123;
std::type_info const & ti3{typeid(i)};

It evaluates to a const std::type_info which has only a few useful members:

  • operator==(const std::type_info&) and operator!=(const std::type_info&) to compare types
  • std::size_t hash_code() to get an integer that’s always the same for a given type
  • const char* name() to get the type’s string name

When using typeid on a null pointer, a bad_typeid is thrown:

Enemy* pe = nullptr;
try
{
    // Doesn't dereference null
    // Instead, attempts to get the type_info for what pe points to
    std::type_info const & ti{typeid(*pe)};
 
    // Not printed
    DebugLog(ti.name());
}
catch (std::bad_typeid const &)
{
    DebugLog("bad typeid call"); // Is printed
}

One common surprise with typeid is that it ignores const:

DebugLog(typeid(int) == typeid(const int)); // true

Another is that the name member function doesn’t return any specific string. That string is also usually some compiler-specific code that may or may not have the name of the type from the source code:

// All of these will vary from compiler to compiler
DebugLog(typeid(int).name()); // i
DebugLog(typeid(long).name()); // l
DebugLog(typeid(Enemy).name()); // 5Enemy

One more is that the std::type_info for one call might not be the same object as the std::type_info for another call, even if they’re the same type. The hash_code member function should be used instead:

DebugLog(&typeid(int) == &typeid(int)); // Maybe false
DebugLog(typeid(int).hash_code() == typeid(int).hash_code()); // Always true
Conclusion

As is often the case when comparing the two languages, C++ provides many options when C# provides only a few. In the case of casting, C++ provides a wide variety of named, C-style, and function-style casts for specific purposes while C# essentially only provides dynamic_cast.

When used appropriately, this can make many casts “free” as no CPU instructions will be generated and no size will be added to the executable. When used inappropriately, undefined behavior may cause severe errors such as crashes and data corruption. It’s up to us as programmers to know the rules of casting and to judiciously choose the appropriate cast for our task. The consequences, even with thrown exceptions in C#, of careless casting really demand that we exercise caution regardless of language and cast type.